History and development
Roots in ancient Chinese zithers: qin (7 strings, no bridges); se (w/ bridges)
 Gakuso (gagaku koto): 13 strings, solo tradition of Nara/Heian unknown today.
Tsukushigoto: oldest known koto repertoire based on vocal court music.
Kenjun composed kumiuta: series of short poems set to music.
Exclusive music - forbidden to blind musicians and women.

Yatsuhashi Kengyo (1614-1684): blind shamisen player taught by Kenjun’s student
Yatsuhashi popularized tsukushigoto music; famous pieces Rokudan, Midare.
Yatsuhashi changed tuning from gagaku modes to in scale.

Ikuta Kengyo (1656-1715): founded Ikuta school, combining koto with shamisen
Created jiuta koto style based on jiuta shamisen music.
Basic form of jiuta is alternation of vocal and instrumental passages.
More emphasis on instrumental passages than vocal parts.

Yamada Kengyo (1757-1817): founded Yamada school, based on Edo shamisen
Yamada school gave more important role to the vocal parts.

Miyagi Michio (1894-1956): blind koto player, composer and innovator
Invented 17-string bass koto;
Haru no Umi (Spring Sea): Western-influenced koto composition.

Main characteristics of koto
13 silk strings, hollow wooden body sound box; about 180 cm.
Moveable bridges to produce variety of scales.
Tunings: hirajoshi and kumoijoshi; based on in and yo scales.
Additional pitches produced by pushing down strings.
Special techniques: glissandos, tremolos, bare hands, harmonics,
twisting string for subtle pitch changes, scraping string.
 

Instruments in sankyoku ensemble
 Shamisen (3 string plucked lute) - plays main melody.
 Shakuhachi (end-blown flute) - follows general contour of melody.
 Koto adds ornamentation to melody; second koto may be added.
Kokyu (bowed lute) - replaced by shakuhachi at end of Edo period.

Form in koto music
Form is flexible and open to rearrangement.
Similar melodic material appears in many compositions (common in Japanese music).
Shirabemono: music divided into sections (dan); e.g., Yatsuhashi dan = 120 beats.
Basic theme presented and varied with each dan; new material interpolated.
Jiuta: alternation between songs and instrumental interludes
This form extends the instrumental transitions between songs.
Basic 3-part form: opening song, instrumental interlude, after song.
Form often expanded, alternating more songs with more interludes.
No thematic development between interludes.
Uchiawase: first koto plays main melody while second plays independent melody.
Danawase: variation of the main melody is superimposed upon itself
  (e.g., second dan played simultaneously with first dan).