History
Popular theatricals during Heian (794-1185) were prototypes of noh:
 Sarugaku (shrine ritual); Sangaku (acrobatics); Dengaku (field dances).
Kyogen (lit. “mad words”) - comic plays that eclipsed sangaku acrobatics.
Sarugaku no noh: popular theatricals combined with sacred chant
Developed into a serious theater form by Kannami and Zeami (14th cent.)
 Buddhist chant (shomyo) introduced.
Instruments – three drums and flute.
Zeami: major author of noh plays and theoretical works about noh drama.
Zen influence: restraint, allusion are basic to noh.

Structure of a noh play
Performance typically consists of five plays and three kyogen (comedies without music).
Five kinds of plays: god, warrior, woman, mad woman, demon (determines music).
Play centers around a principal actor (shite) and a secondary actor (waki).

Jo-Ha-Kyu structure: five sections (dan) in two acts - Act I (4), Act II (1)
ACT I: Jo (introduction) – first dan
Introductory music, scene-setting; appearance of waki.
Ha (exposition) - three dan
Second dan: main actor entrance (michiyuki); first song (issei).
Third dan: questions and answers between two actors (mondo);
 kudoki (appears during tender, feminine scenes).
Fourth dan: climax of Act I contains two sections
kuri - emotional tension of play revealed;
kuse – danced exposition of central character.
Between Acts - comic play (kyogen) or drum and flute interlude.
ACT II: Kyu (denouement) – Final dan
Machiutai (waiting song); reappearance of actor as supernatural being.
Mai (dance) highlight of the play; music depends on character.

 
The ensemble (hayashi): one flute, three drums
Nokan (transverse flute): relative of ryuteki (gagaku flute)
Function of nokan: signals parts of play; accompanies dance and sets tempo;
creates different timbre and atmosphere in interludes;
sets pitch for the chorus; heightens lyricism of poetic passages.
Features: ambiguity of tones (to avoid competing with chorus melody);
Altered construction affects overblown notes;
Breathy, heavy, piercing tones (originally performed outdoors);
Rhythm not precisely indicated unless taiko plays.
Structure of extended flute passages:
Introduction, several related units (dan), and a coda.
  Melodic units repeat with subtle pitch variations added;
  Interpolate new material (common Japanese variation technique).
Original theme returns and piece ends with a short coda.
Ko-tsuzumi (double-headed, hourglass-shaped drum)
Features: held on shoulder; one head struck; pressure applied to change tone;
moistened paper applied to rear skin adjusts tone.
Construction: inside carving; encircling ropes for applying pressure.
Sounds: pon (strong center), pu (soft center), ta (strong edge)
O-tsuzumi (double-headed, hourglass-shaped drum)
Features: held on hip; larger in size than ko-tsuzumi; one head struck;
high tension on heads to create strong, sharp tone;
heads heated before every performance.
Sounds: chon (strong), don (medium), and tsu (weak).
Taiko (double-headed, barrel-shaped drum)
 Features: played with sticks; held on stand;
Sounds: sho (small), chu (medium) and dai (large);
osameru (stopping sound by leaving stick on skin);
kashira (two-beat ending pattern, accompanied by drum calls);
Music of the hayashi:
Originally used only in dances; now throughout play.
Combinations of stereotyped patterns memorized by musicians.
8-beat patterns: typically begin on 2nd beat (7 out of 8 beats used).
Drum calls (kakegoe): used to mark time of flexible rhythm.
Full combination not always used: taiko often waits until final dance to play.

Noh singing (yokyoku or utai):
Derived from Buddhist chant; words and pronunciation abstract and archaic.
Sung by actors and chorus; chorus leader (jigashira) controls flexible rhythm.
Styles: heightened speech or recitative (kotoba)
 melody (fushi): soft style (yowagin); strong style (tsuyogin)
Pitch structure: based on the interval of a seventh (two fourths) A-E-B
Singing based on main tones; secondary neighboring tones (upper/lower leading).
Stereotyped melodic units combined in various ways; 8-beat phrases.

Summary: text is determining factor for music in Noh drama.